The consequeuences are more severe and it lead to The process of urbanization is preceding a pace without commensurate growth in industrialization and the rise in the level of overall economic development. Unplanned urban growth, for instance causes growth of slums and squatter settlements, varying affects on environmental degradation and increased burden on existing infrastructure. The general problems which are the by product of certain kind of urbanization characteristic of low income countries are:
Shortage of Houses: The problem that perhaps causes the most concern to a majority of urban dwellers is that of finding an appropriate place to live in. According to Tenth Five Year Plan the nation needed twenty two million additional houses. Inadequate housing that forces more than fifty percent of our population in some metropolis to live in slums, all these severely decrease the quality of life and lower the well being of urban population.
Critical Inadequacies in Public Utilities
Massive problem have emerged due to rapid growth of urban population without a corresponding increase in urban infrastructure like safe drinking water, preventive health services, sanitation facility, adequate power supply and provisioning of basic amenities. Minimum basic facility is also not available for many cities. The existing urban health services are under tremendous pressure to meet the demands of all needy people. The quality of life for the bulk of urban population involves many avoidable hardships. Poor urban infrastructure, congested roads, poor public transport, improper treatment of sewage, uncollected solid waste are the general feature of urban settlements. According to Urbanization report of World Bank only fifty eight percent of urban population of India has access to improved sanitation facilities.
Deteriorating Urban Environment: India is the world's fifth-largest producer of global warming gas and emissions (USA leads the race). The problem of pollution is more severe in big cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai. In India, urban areas are more developed and industrialized than the rural areas, and this attracts still more people to the urban areas. Thus there is more pressure on facilities like transport services, housing and drainage facilities, as well as more production of other goods required by the urban population, which in turn results in the release of large amounts of wastes and pollutants. The rapid growth in urban population, which affects patterns of production and consumption, is a principal source of pressure on the environment. A common and general instance that can be cited here is the contamination of water and rising level of toxins in almost all major rivers of India due to heavy disposal of sewage wastes, excreta and chemical wastes. Due to large migration of population to urban areas the threat to the environment becomes inevitable and it not only leads to environmental degradation but also the increasing vulnerability to infectious disease and congestion.
Poverty: Poverty in India can be defined as a situation only when a section of peoples are unable to satisfy the basic needs of life. According to an expert group of Planning Commission, poverty lines in rural areas are drawn with an intake of 2400 calories in rural areas and 2100 calories in urban areas. If the person is unable to get that minimum level of calories is considered as being below poverty line. In the cities people are suffering from acute poverty and the living conditions is so poor that in one small room all family members are staying and this is common feature of people who are living below poverty line. The speed of population growth and levels of poverty in mega cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Hyderabad pose immense infrastructural problems.
Tuesday 12 July 2011
Rise of New Classes
The emergence of new social classes in India was the direct consequences of the establishment a new social economy, a new type of state system and state administrative machinery and the spread of new education during the British rule.
The new social classes involved in the Indian society during the British rule were: in agrarian area, they were: (1) zamindars created by the British Government, (2) absentee landlords, (3) tenant under zamindars and absentee landlords, (4) the class of peasant proprietors, (5) agricultural labourers, (6) the modern class of merchants and (7) the modern class of money lenders. In urban areas, they were: (1) modern class of capitalist, industrial, commercial and financial; (2) the modern working class engaged in industrial, transport, mining and such other enterprises, (3) the class of pretty traders and shopkeepers, (4) the professional classes such as technicians, doctors, lawyers, professors, journalists, managers, clerks and others, comprising the intelligentsia and the educated middle class.
The introduction of private property in land in the form of Zamindari and Ryotwari by the British government brought into being the new classes of large estate owners, the zamindars, and peasant proprietors. Further, the creation of the right to lease land brought into being such as tenants and sub-tenants; the creation of to purchase and sell land together with the right to hire and employ labour on land, created conditions for the growth of the class of absentee landlords and that of the agricultural proletariat.
In the agrarian area, a group of modern money lenders and merchants who were unknown in pre-British Indian society, developed on an increasing scale. They are intermediaries between the peasants and the market, and absentee landlords.
In the rural area, the classes of money lenders and merchants existed in pre-British India. But the role was transformed when the new land system was introduced. So, the class of modern money lenders and merchants might be described as new social classes linked up with the new capitalist economy and performing functions quite different from pre-British Indian society.
Under the British rule, the internal and external trade expanded which resulted in the emergence of a class of commercial bourgeoisie, who engaged in extensive internal and foreign trade. These new merchant classes traded in all production, rural and urban, agriculture and industrial in the country.
The professional classes comprising modern lawyers, doctors, teachers, professors, managers, clerks, engineers, chemists, technologies, journalists and others, formed another new social group, which evolved in Indian society during the British period. These social groups linked up with modern industry, agriculture, commerce, finance, administration, press and other sections of the new social life, were unknown to pre-British Indian society since such a social, economic, and class system did not then exist.
In addition to the new classes enumerated above, there existed in the urban area, in every town and city, a big class of petty traders and shopkeepers which had dev with the growth of modern cities and towns.
The new social classes involved in the Indian society during the British rule were: in agrarian area, they were: (1) zamindars created by the British Government, (2) absentee landlords, (3) tenant under zamindars and absentee landlords, (4) the class of peasant proprietors, (5) agricultural labourers, (6) the modern class of merchants and (7) the modern class of money lenders. In urban areas, they were: (1) modern class of capitalist, industrial, commercial and financial; (2) the modern working class engaged in industrial, transport, mining and such other enterprises, (3) the class of pretty traders and shopkeepers, (4) the professional classes such as technicians, doctors, lawyers, professors, journalists, managers, clerks and others, comprising the intelligentsia and the educated middle class.
The introduction of private property in land in the form of Zamindari and Ryotwari by the British government brought into being the new classes of large estate owners, the zamindars, and peasant proprietors. Further, the creation of the right to lease land brought into being such as tenants and sub-tenants; the creation of to purchase and sell land together with the right to hire and employ labour on land, created conditions for the growth of the class of absentee landlords and that of the agricultural proletariat.
In the agrarian area, a group of modern money lenders and merchants who were unknown in pre-British Indian society, developed on an increasing scale. They are intermediaries between the peasants and the market, and absentee landlords.
In the rural area, the classes of money lenders and merchants existed in pre-British India. But the role was transformed when the new land system was introduced. So, the class of modern money lenders and merchants might be described as new social classes linked up with the new capitalist economy and performing functions quite different from pre-British Indian society.
Under the British rule, the internal and external trade expanded which resulted in the emergence of a class of commercial bourgeoisie, who engaged in extensive internal and foreign trade. These new merchant classes traded in all production, rural and urban, agriculture and industrial in the country.
The professional classes comprising modern lawyers, doctors, teachers, professors, managers, clerks, engineers, chemists, technologies, journalists and others, formed another new social group, which evolved in Indian society during the British period. These social groups linked up with modern industry, agriculture, commerce, finance, administration, press and other sections of the new social life, were unknown to pre-British Indian society since such a social, economic, and class system did not then exist.
In addition to the new classes enumerated above, there existed in the urban area, in every town and city, a big class of petty traders and shopkeepers which had dev with the growth of modern cities and towns.
The Caste System
In ancient India there developed a social system in which people were divided into separate close communities. These communities are known in English as caste. The origin of the caste system is in Hinduism, but it affected the whole Indian society. The caste system in the religious form is basically a simple division of society in which there are four castes arranged in a hierarchy and below them the outcast. But socially the caste system was more complicated, with much more castes and sub-castes and other divisions. Legally the government disallows the practice of caste system but has a policy of affirmative discrimination of the backward classes.
The leaders of independent India decided that India will be democratic, socialist and secular country. According to this policy there is a separation between religion and state. Practicing untouchability or discriminating a person based on his caste is legally forbidden. Along with this law the government allows positive discrimination of the depressed classes of India.
In modern India the term caste is used for Jat and also for Varna. The term, caste was used by the British who ruled India until 1947. The British who wanted to rule India efficiently made lists of Indian communities. They used two terms to describe Indian communities. Castes and Tribes. The term caste was used for Jats and also for Varnas. Tribes were those communities who lived deep in jungles, forests and mountains far away from the main population and also communities who were hard to be defined as castes for example communities who made a living from stealing or robbery. These lists, which the British made, were used later on by the Indian governments to create lists of communities who were entitled for positive discrimination.
The higher classes, which were the elite of the Indian society, were classified as high castes. The other communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes. The lower classes were listed in three categories. The first category is called Scheduled Castes. This category includes in it communities who were untouchables. In modern India, untouchability exists at a very low extent. The untouchables call themselves Dalit, meaning depressed. Until the late 1980s they were called Harijan, meaning children of God. This title was given to them by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted the society to accept untouchables within them.
The second category is Scheduled Tribes. This category includes in it those communities who did not accept the caste system and preferred to reside deep in the jungles, forests and mountains of India, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals. The third category is called sometimes Other Backward Classes or Backward Classes. This category includes in it castes who belong to Sudra Varna and also former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions. This category also includes in it nomads and tribes who made a living from criminal acts.
According to the central government policy these three categories are entitled for positive discrimination. Sometimes these three categories are defined together as Backward Classes. 15% of India's population are Scheduled Castes. According to central government policy 15% of the government jobs and 15% of the students admitted to universities must be from Scheduled Castes. For the Scheduled Tribes about 7.5% places are reserved which is their proportion in Indian population. The Other Backwards Classes are about 50% of India's population, but only 27% of government jobs are reserved for them.
The leaders of independent India decided that India will be democratic, socialist and secular country. According to this policy there is a separation between religion and state. Practicing untouchability or discriminating a person based on his caste is legally forbidden. Along with this law the government allows positive discrimination of the depressed classes of India.
In modern India the term caste is used for Jat and also for Varna. The term, caste was used by the British who ruled India until 1947. The British who wanted to rule India efficiently made lists of Indian communities. They used two terms to describe Indian communities. Castes and Tribes. The term caste was used for Jats and also for Varnas. Tribes were those communities who lived deep in jungles, forests and mountains far away from the main population and also communities who were hard to be defined as castes for example communities who made a living from stealing or robbery. These lists, which the British made, were used later on by the Indian governments to create lists of communities who were entitled for positive discrimination.
The higher classes, which were the elite of the Indian society, were classified as high castes. The other communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes. The lower classes were listed in three categories. The first category is called Scheduled Castes. This category includes in it communities who were untouchables. In modern India, untouchability exists at a very low extent. The untouchables call themselves Dalit, meaning depressed. Until the late 1980s they were called Harijan, meaning children of God. This title was given to them by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted the society to accept untouchables within them.
The second category is Scheduled Tribes. This category includes in it those communities who did not accept the caste system and preferred to reside deep in the jungles, forests and mountains of India, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals. The third category is called sometimes Other Backward Classes or Backward Classes. This category includes in it castes who belong to Sudra Varna and also former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions. This category also includes in it nomads and tribes who made a living from criminal acts.
According to the central government policy these three categories are entitled for positive discrimination. Sometimes these three categories are defined together as Backward Classes. 15% of India's population are Scheduled Castes. According to central government policy 15% of the government jobs and 15% of the students admitted to universities must be from Scheduled Castes. For the Scheduled Tribes about 7.5% places are reserved which is their proportion in Indian population. The Other Backwards Classes are about 50% of India's population, but only 27% of government jobs are reserved for them.
Land Reforms in India
One of the most ticklish questions in Indian economy has been the nature and relevance of land reforms. Comprehensive land reforms were among the first priorities of the Government of India immediately after Independence. For this the manifold imbalances of the colonial legacy of two centuries had to be dismantled, and a new beginning made. It was a semi-feudal system that was inherited from British rule. A handful of intermediaries rack-rented a large mass of hapless tenantry. A widespread system of subletting, often several rungs deep, worsened the situation by reducing the holdings to uneconomic proportions.
With the twin objectives of achieving social equity and ensuring economic growth, the land reforms programme was built around three major issues:
1. Abolition of intermediaries.
2. Settlement and regulation of tenancy.
3. Regulation of size of holdings.
The central thesis behind the abolition of intermediaries, underlined by the first as well as the Second Five Year Plan, was that owners themselves should operate and manage farm business, and so the tenant-landlord nexus should be put to an end. The intermediary’s privileges were conceived as having an adverse impact on agricultural productivity as well as denying the tiller of the soil his rightful place in the economy. Tenancy reforms were launched to confirm the rights of occupancy by tenants, regulate rents on leased land and to secure their possession of tenanted land. It was argued, especially in the context of the spread of modern technology, that the tenants lacking a security of tenure and paying excessive rents suffer a relative decline in inputs compared to the owners. To this end the following recommendations were made by the Chief Ministers’ Conference in 1967:
1. The rate of interest should not be more, preferably less, than 1/4 or 1/5 of the gross produce.
2. Records of tenancy should be prepared and maintained.
3. Tenants in cultivating position of land should be given complete security of tenancy by: i) staying all evictions; ii) suspending rights of resumption where such rights had been given to landowners; and iii) regulating voluntary surrenders in such a way landowners do not get an advantage by persuading tenants to surrender their tenancy.
The third major land reform plank was regulating the size of land holdings through ceiling as well as consolidation to correct the extremely skewed distribution of agricultural land. It was designed to (i) to meet land hunger of working cultivators, (ii) to reduce the disparities in agricultural income, ownership, and use of land, and (iii) to increase rural employment in the sector. At the same time, consolidation of holdings was also advocated to group together the numerous tiny and scattered holdings of poor cultivators in order to form bigger tracts, susceptible to more efficient management. Cooperative farming on these would increase productivity and employment through economies of scale. The large, economical units of consolidated land, it was opined, would mitigate the problem of poor yield and enhance productivity through economies of scale and also increase employment.
As the land reforms reach an impasse, a series of considerations have raised serious doubts about their continuing relevance as to whether they are really the best way for achieving growth with general well-being and whether they are in harmony with the ongoing liberalisation of Indian economy. Ultimately, the success or even the initiative for such policy measures would depend on the extent to which our decision-makers believe them to be compatible with the politics of competitive populism.
Sanskritization
The caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially so in the middle regions of the hierarchy. A low caste was able, in a generation or two, to rise to a higher position in the hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, and by Sanskritizing its ritual and pantheon. In short, it took over, as far as possible, the customs, rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins, and the adoption of the Brahminic way of life by a low caste seems to have been frequent, though theoretically forbidden. This process has been called -'Sanskritization'.
The development of Hinduism can be interpreted as a constant interaction between the religion of the upper social groups, represented by the Brahmans, and the religion of other groups. From the time of the Vedas (c. 1500 BCE) the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms. This development resulted from the desire of lower- class groups to rise on the social ladder by adopting the ways and beliefs of the higher castes. The process, sometimes called "Sanskritization," began in Vedic times, when non-Vedic chieftains accepted the ministrations of Brahmans and thus achieved social status for themselves and their subjects. It was probably the principal method by which Hinduism spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia. Sanskritization still continues in the form of the conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected by the persistent tendency of low-caste Hindus to try to raise their status by adopting high-caste customs, such as wearing the sacred cord and becoming vegetarians, even though the castes have been officially abolished.
If Sanskritization has been the main means of spreading Hinduism throughout the subcontinent, the converse process, which has no convenient label, has been one of the means whereby Hinduism has changed and developed over the centuries. The Vedic people lived side by side with the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent. The phallic emblem of the god Shiva arose from a combination of the phallic aspects of the Vedic god Indra and a non-Vedic icon of early popular fertility cults. Many features of Hindu mythology and several of the lesser gods-such as Ganesha, an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman, the monkey god-were incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means. Similarly, the worship of many goddesses who are now regarded as the consorts of the great male Hindu gods, as well as the worship of individual unmarried goddesses, may have originally incorporated the worship of non-Vedic local goddesses. Unorthodox circles on the fringes of Brahmanic culture (probably in southern India) were one of the important sources of the system of ecstatic devotional religion known as bhakti. Thus, the history of Hinduism can be interpreted as the imposition of orthoprax custom upon wider and wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the survival of features of non-Vedic religions that gained strength steadily until they were adapted by the Brahmans.
The development of Hinduism can be interpreted as a constant interaction between the religion of the upper social groups, represented by the Brahmans, and the religion of other groups. From the time of the Vedas (c. 1500 BCE) the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms. This development resulted from the desire of lower- class groups to rise on the social ladder by adopting the ways and beliefs of the higher castes. The process, sometimes called "Sanskritization," began in Vedic times, when non-Vedic chieftains accepted the ministrations of Brahmans and thus achieved social status for themselves and their subjects. It was probably the principal method by which Hinduism spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia. Sanskritization still continues in the form of the conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected by the persistent tendency of low-caste Hindus to try to raise their status by adopting high-caste customs, such as wearing the sacred cord and becoming vegetarians, even though the castes have been officially abolished.
If Sanskritization has been the main means of spreading Hinduism throughout the subcontinent, the converse process, which has no convenient label, has been one of the means whereby Hinduism has changed and developed over the centuries. The Vedic people lived side by side with the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent. The phallic emblem of the god Shiva arose from a combination of the phallic aspects of the Vedic god Indra and a non-Vedic icon of early popular fertility cults. Many features of Hindu mythology and several of the lesser gods-such as Ganesha, an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman, the monkey god-were incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means. Similarly, the worship of many goddesses who are now regarded as the consorts of the great male Hindu gods, as well as the worship of individual unmarried goddesses, may have originally incorporated the worship of non-Vedic local goddesses. Unorthodox circles on the fringes of Brahmanic culture (probably in southern India) were one of the important sources of the system of ecstatic devotional religion known as bhakti. Thus, the history of Hinduism can be interpreted as the imposition of orthoprax custom upon wider and wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the survival of features of non-Vedic religions that gained strength steadily until they were adapted by the Brahmans.
Unity in Diversity
It is often said that there is unity in diversity in India. The people of India are united with a common cultural heritage have a feeling of unity in spite of having external differences. From ancient times it is been seen that India is divided into various castes, creed , religions, regions but then too they are united as one whole nation. Nothing in the past have made them broken into pieces. It is an whole of a nation with a huge population , and will remain united in whatever condition they may put to.
India is a land of diverse physical features. There are snow capped mountains, hilly terrains, plains, plateaus, and coastal areas. There are deserts and places with extreme and scanty rainfall. There are regions with extreme and moderate climate.
People of India follow different religions and castes. They follow different customs, traditions and speak different languages. They also differ in dress and food.inspite of so many differences; people have a feeling of oneness .they are bound by common cultural heritage and they share basic human values. When Indians go abroad, they call themselves Indians and they are known as Indians.
Indian culture is dynamic and tolerant.indian culture is more varied and richer. Though the foreign cultures retained their basic character, they became a part of the Indian culture with the passage of time. The diversity of the Indians contributes to the variety and richness of Indian culture and strengthens national unity.
But intolerance and narrow mindedness may weaken national unity. We should therefore create conditions in which people should become conscious of the similarities which make them Indians rather than the dissimilarities which distinguish them from others. People must be encouraged to feel proud of India’s cultural heritage, of being called Indians while retaining their distinct features. India is a live example to the world to show them that they have Unity In Diversity. This country not only remains together in an emergency but also they remain together in natural calamities such as famines, floods and earthquakes. This country has become quite inspirational for the countries who have heavily been divided racially.
Jajmani System
The notion of the jajmani system was popularized by colonial ethnography. It tended to conceptualize agrarian social structure in the framework of exchange relations. In its classical construct, different caste groups specialized in specific occupations and exchanged their services through an elaborate system of division of labor. Though asymmetry in position of various caste groups was recognized what it emphasized was not inequality in rights over land but the spirit of community. Wiser argued, each served the other. Each in turn was master. Each in turn was servant. This system of inter relatedness in service within Hindu community was called the Jajmani system. Central to such a construction of exchange is the idea of reciprocity (Gouldner) with the assumption that it was a non-exploitative system where mutual gratification was supposed to be the outcome of the reciprocal exchange.
The concept of Jajmani system
Inter-caste relations at the village level constitute vertical ties. They may be classified into economic, ritual, political and civic ties. The castes living in a village are bound together by economic ties. Generally peasant castes are numerically preponderant in villages and they need the carpenter, blacksmith and leather worker castes to perform agricultural work. Servicing castes such as priest, barber, and washerman and water carrier cater to the needs of everyone except the Harijans.Artisan castes produce goods which are wanted by every one. Most Indian villages do not have more than a few of the essential castes and depend on neighboring villages for certain services, skills and goods.
In rural India with its largely subsistence and not fully monetized economy the relationship between the different caste groups in a village takes a particular form. The essential artisan and servicing castes are paid annually in grain at harvest time. In some parts of India the artisan and servicing castes are also provided with free food, clothing, fodder and residential site. On such occasions as birth, marriage and death, these castes perform extra duties for which they are paid customary money and some gifts in kind. This type of relationship is found all over India and is called by different names-jajmani in north,bara batute in Maharashtra,mirasi in Tamil Nadu and adade in Karnataka.
Main features of Jajmani System
The jajmani system is characterized by the following features:
1. Unbroken relationship- Under the jajmani system the kameen remains obliged to render the services throughout his life to a particular jajman and the jajman in turn has the responsibility of hiring services of a kameen.
2. Hereditary relationship- Jajmani rights are enjoyed hereditarily. After the death of a man his son is entitled to work as kameen for the same jajman family of families. The son of a jajman also accepts the son of the kameen as his kameen.
3. Multidimensional relationship- Due to the permanency of relationship both the jajman and kameen families become mutually dependent on each other. The relationship becomes very deep. They often take part in the personal and family affairs,family rituals and ceremonies.
4. Barter exchange-Under jajmani system the payments are made mainly in terms of goods and commodities. The kameen gets his necessities from the jajman in return of his services.
The jajmani system has gradually decayed in modern society. There are many reasons responsible for it. Modern economic system that measures everything in terms of its monetary value. The decline of belief in caste system and hereditary occupation has given a strong blow to the system. Growth of better employment opportunities outside the village and introduction of new transport options.
The concept of Jajmani system
Inter-caste relations at the village level constitute vertical ties. They may be classified into economic, ritual, political and civic ties. The castes living in a village are bound together by economic ties. Generally peasant castes are numerically preponderant in villages and they need the carpenter, blacksmith and leather worker castes to perform agricultural work. Servicing castes such as priest, barber, and washerman and water carrier cater to the needs of everyone except the Harijans.Artisan castes produce goods which are wanted by every one. Most Indian villages do not have more than a few of the essential castes and depend on neighboring villages for certain services, skills and goods.
In rural India with its largely subsistence and not fully monetized economy the relationship between the different caste groups in a village takes a particular form. The essential artisan and servicing castes are paid annually in grain at harvest time. In some parts of India the artisan and servicing castes are also provided with free food, clothing, fodder and residential site. On such occasions as birth, marriage and death, these castes perform extra duties for which they are paid customary money and some gifts in kind. This type of relationship is found all over India and is called by different names-jajmani in north,bara batute in Maharashtra,mirasi in Tamil Nadu and adade in Karnataka.
Main features of Jajmani System
The jajmani system is characterized by the following features:
1. Unbroken relationship- Under the jajmani system the kameen remains obliged to render the services throughout his life to a particular jajman and the jajman in turn has the responsibility of hiring services of a kameen.
2. Hereditary relationship- Jajmani rights are enjoyed hereditarily. After the death of a man his son is entitled to work as kameen for the same jajman family of families. The son of a jajman also accepts the son of the kameen as his kameen.
3. Multidimensional relationship- Due to the permanency of relationship both the jajman and kameen families become mutually dependent on each other. The relationship becomes very deep. They often take part in the personal and family affairs,family rituals and ceremonies.
4. Barter exchange-Under jajmani system the payments are made mainly in terms of goods and commodities. The kameen gets his necessities from the jajman in return of his services.
The jajmani system has gradually decayed in modern society. There are many reasons responsible for it. Modern economic system that measures everything in terms of its monetary value. The decline of belief in caste system and hereditary occupation has given a strong blow to the system. Growth of better employment opportunities outside the village and introduction of new transport options.
Commercialisation of Agriculture during British Rule
Revolutionary changes had occurred in the agrarian property relations towards the end of the 18th century. This was over a period of time, followed by a commercial revolution in the agricultural sector. Commercialization of agriculture became prominent around 1860 A.D. This brought about a change from cultivation for home consumption to cultivation for the market. Cash transactions become the basis of exchange and largely replaced the barter system.
Various factors led to the commercialization of agriculture during the British rule in India. The chief factor was the colonial subjugation of India under the British rule. India was reduced to the supplier of raw materials and food grains to Britain and importer of British manufactured goods. Many commercial crops like, cotton, jute, tea, tobacco were introduced to meet the demand in Britain.
Better means of communication (equipped with rapid development of railways and shipping) made trade in agricultural products feasible, especially over long distances. The emergence of grain merchants was a natural adjunct to this and greatly facilitated agricultural trade. Monetization of land revenue payments was another important casual factor for agricultural commercialization.
Coming to the impact of the commercialization of agriculture, normally speaking, it should have acted as a catalyst in increasing agricultural productivity. But, in reality this did not happen due to poor agricultural organization, obsolete technology, and lack of resources among most peasants. It was only the rich farmers; who benefited and this in turn, accentuated inequalities of income in the rural society.
A significant feature of commercialization of agriculture in India was the substitution of commercial non-food grains in place of food grains. George Byn records that between 1893-94 to 1945-46, the production of commercial crops increased by 85 percent and that of food crops fell by 7 percent. This had a devastating effect on the rural economy and often took the shape of famines.
Regional specialization of crop production based on climatic conditions, soil etc., was an outcome of the commercial revolution in agriculture. Deccan districts of Bombay presidency grew cotton, Bengal grew jute and Indigo, Bihar grew opium, Assam grew tea, Punjab grew wheat, etc.
Another important consequence of the commercial revolution in agriculture was linking of the agricultural sector to the world market. Price movements and business fluctuations in the world markets began to affect the fortunes of the Indian farmer to a degree that it had never done before. The farmer in his choice of crops attached greater importance to market demand and price than his home needs. The commercialization of agriculture had mixed effects. While it assisted the industrial revolution in Britain, it broke the economic self-sufficiency of villages in India. Nonetheless, the new development was not without any benefits as it provided for a national economy and also brought about regional specialization of crops on an efficient basis.
Various factors led to the commercialization of agriculture during the British rule in India. The chief factor was the colonial subjugation of India under the British rule. India was reduced to the supplier of raw materials and food grains to Britain and importer of British manufactured goods. Many commercial crops like, cotton, jute, tea, tobacco were introduced to meet the demand in Britain.
Better means of communication (equipped with rapid development of railways and shipping) made trade in agricultural products feasible, especially over long distances. The emergence of grain merchants was a natural adjunct to this and greatly facilitated agricultural trade. Monetization of land revenue payments was another important casual factor for agricultural commercialization.
Coming to the impact of the commercialization of agriculture, normally speaking, it should have acted as a catalyst in increasing agricultural productivity. But, in reality this did not happen due to poor agricultural organization, obsolete technology, and lack of resources among most peasants. It was only the rich farmers; who benefited and this in turn, accentuated inequalities of income in the rural society.
A significant feature of commercialization of agriculture in India was the substitution of commercial non-food grains in place of food grains. George Byn records that between 1893-94 to 1945-46, the production of commercial crops increased by 85 percent and that of food crops fell by 7 percent. This had a devastating effect on the rural economy and often took the shape of famines.
Regional specialization of crop production based on climatic conditions, soil etc., was an outcome of the commercial revolution in agriculture. Deccan districts of Bombay presidency grew cotton, Bengal grew jute and Indigo, Bihar grew opium, Assam grew tea, Punjab grew wheat, etc.
Another important consequence of the commercial revolution in agriculture was linking of the agricultural sector to the world market. Price movements and business fluctuations in the world markets began to affect the fortunes of the Indian farmer to a degree that it had never done before. The farmer in his choice of crops attached greater importance to market demand and price than his home needs. The commercialization of agriculture had mixed effects. While it assisted the industrial revolution in Britain, it broke the economic self-sufficiency of villages in India. Nonetheless, the new development was not without any benefits as it provided for a national economy and also brought about regional specialization of crops on an efficient basis.
Thursday 7 July 2011
Rise of Fascism
Since the unification of Italy, Italy's governments had proved themselves weak, and the majority of the Italian polulation still remained poor. During the first twenty years of the twentieth century, there were frequent riots and strikes during which Italian workers had occupied the factories where they worked. The Italian government of the time was unable to maintain order and control these upheavals. The state of affairs gave Benito Mussolini (picture on left) the opportunity to rise to power in Italy.
Teacher, journalist and soldier, Mussolini advocated extreme right-wing policies. Promising order and upholding the ideal of patriotism, Mussolini had gathered around him his own private brigade and army. Mussolini's followers carried out a campaign of violence against opposing political parties and against all those who did not share their ideals. By 1922 Mussolini had enough power to demand representation in the actual government of the country. When this demand was turned down, Mussolini and his followers decided to make the challenge of force. On 28th October 1922 supporters of Mussolini converged on the city of Rome from various parts of the country, in what was to be called "La Marcia su Roma" (The March on Rome). King Victor Emanuel III and the army refused to resist them, and they enetered Rome unopposed. The King then asked Mussolini to form a government and assume the post of prime minister. This famous march on Rome heralded the rise of Fascism to importance in Italy.
The fascist Party was formed in Milan by Mussolini in 1919 and its members were known as "camicie nere" (the Black Shirts), because of the black shirts they wore as uniforms. The word fascism is derived from the Latin "fasces", a bundle of rods round an axe which was carried before a magistrate in Ancient Rome, denoting authority, power and discipline. The term "fascio" was the Italian form of the word meaning a group or squad.
The fascist regime which took power in 1922 improved various sectors of Italian affairs, such as the cultivation of more lands, irrigation of the marshes in Northern Italy, increasing the production of corn, improvements in the railway and road networks, and the creation of more employment. It was through such measures that Mussolini and the Fascists won the support of the working class. In 1929 Mussolini reached an agreement with the Papacy over the jurisdiction of the Vatican. By this Lateran Pact, which won Mussolini the support of the Roman Catholic Church, the Italian State gave the Pope full sovereignity over the Vatican City.
However, on the other hand, the Fascist Regime was turning Italy into an authoritarian state with Mussolini as "Il-Duce" (the absolute leader). Mussolini based his patriotism on pride, glory and honour. He wanted to restore to Italy its former might and glory of Roman Empire times. Militarism was put high in the Fascists' agenda, with Mussolini himself praising warfare as the highest peak of human endeavour. Therefore, it came as no surprise when in 1923 the Italian Navy bombarded the island of Corfu` because of a dispute with Greece over an Italian general who had been previously assassinated.
Mussolini still remembered the humiliating defeat Italy had suffered by the Abyssinians at the Battle of Adowa in 1896. He wanted to restore the prestige Italy had lost through that defeat. In 1935 Italian troops led by General De Bono invaded Abyssinia but were held back. De Bono was shortly replaced by General Badaglio, and by continuous aircraft attacks and the use of poison gas the Italians ultimately prevailed. In May 1936 addis Ababa, the capital of Abyssinia, was captured by Italian troops and the native emperor was forced to flee to England.
England and France were now faced with a delicate situation, because Italy was one of the principal members of the League of Nations. In order not to weaken the League, both countries did not wish to act harshly towards Italy. Eventually, it was agreed that economic sanctions should be imposed against Italy. However these sanctions had little or no effect on Italy because they did not include such items as the manufacture of motor vehicles and the production of coal and oil, items necessary for an invasion such as the one Italy was then undertaking. Neither France nor England was prepared to take military action against Italy.
The Abyssinian Adventure proved to be a resounding victory for Mussolini and the Fascists, and a severe blow to the credibility of the League of Nations. Ultimately it helped to underline one of the Fascists' important creeds that "Mussolini is always right".
Teacher, journalist and soldier, Mussolini advocated extreme right-wing policies. Promising order and upholding the ideal of patriotism, Mussolini had gathered around him his own private brigade and army. Mussolini's followers carried out a campaign of violence against opposing political parties and against all those who did not share their ideals. By 1922 Mussolini had enough power to demand representation in the actual government of the country. When this demand was turned down, Mussolini and his followers decided to make the challenge of force. On 28th October 1922 supporters of Mussolini converged on the city of Rome from various parts of the country, in what was to be called "La Marcia su Roma" (The March on Rome). King Victor Emanuel III and the army refused to resist them, and they enetered Rome unopposed. The King then asked Mussolini to form a government and assume the post of prime minister. This famous march on Rome heralded the rise of Fascism to importance in Italy.
The fascist Party was formed in Milan by Mussolini in 1919 and its members were known as "camicie nere" (the Black Shirts), because of the black shirts they wore as uniforms. The word fascism is derived from the Latin "fasces", a bundle of rods round an axe which was carried before a magistrate in Ancient Rome, denoting authority, power and discipline. The term "fascio" was the Italian form of the word meaning a group or squad.
The fascist regime which took power in 1922 improved various sectors of Italian affairs, such as the cultivation of more lands, irrigation of the marshes in Northern Italy, increasing the production of corn, improvements in the railway and road networks, and the creation of more employment. It was through such measures that Mussolini and the Fascists won the support of the working class. In 1929 Mussolini reached an agreement with the Papacy over the jurisdiction of the Vatican. By this Lateran Pact, which won Mussolini the support of the Roman Catholic Church, the Italian State gave the Pope full sovereignity over the Vatican City.
However, on the other hand, the Fascist Regime was turning Italy into an authoritarian state with Mussolini as "Il-Duce" (the absolute leader). Mussolini based his patriotism on pride, glory and honour. He wanted to restore to Italy its former might and glory of Roman Empire times. Militarism was put high in the Fascists' agenda, with Mussolini himself praising warfare as the highest peak of human endeavour. Therefore, it came as no surprise when in 1923 the Italian Navy bombarded the island of Corfu` because of a dispute with Greece over an Italian general who had been previously assassinated.
Mussolini still remembered the humiliating defeat Italy had suffered by the Abyssinians at the Battle of Adowa in 1896. He wanted to restore the prestige Italy had lost through that defeat. In 1935 Italian troops led by General De Bono invaded Abyssinia but were held back. De Bono was shortly replaced by General Badaglio, and by continuous aircraft attacks and the use of poison gas the Italians ultimately prevailed. In May 1936 addis Ababa, the capital of Abyssinia, was captured by Italian troops and the native emperor was forced to flee to England.
England and France were now faced with a delicate situation, because Italy was one of the principal members of the League of Nations. In order not to weaken the League, both countries did not wish to act harshly towards Italy. Eventually, it was agreed that economic sanctions should be imposed against Italy. However these sanctions had little or no effect on Italy because they did not include such items as the manufacture of motor vehicles and the production of coal and oil, items necessary for an invasion such as the one Italy was then undertaking. Neither France nor England was prepared to take military action against Italy.
The Abyssinian Adventure proved to be a resounding victory for Mussolini and the Fascists, and a severe blow to the credibility of the League of Nations. Ultimately it helped to underline one of the Fascists' important creeds that "Mussolini is always right".
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over 10-fold, while the world's population increased over 6-fold. In the words of Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before."
Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.
The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. The impact of this change on society was enormous.
The first Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.
Some 20th century historians such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among historians. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over 10-fold, while the world's population increased over 6-fold. In the words of Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before."
Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.
The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. The impact of this change on society was enormous.
The first Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.
Some 20th century historians such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among historians. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
German Foreign Policy
Following the Nazi rise to power, Adolf Hitler's government conducted a foreign policy aimed at the incorporation of ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) living outside German borders into the Reich; German domination of western Europe; and the acquisition of a vast new empire of "living space" (Lebensraum) in eastern Europe. The realization of German hegemony in Europe, Hitler calculated, would require war, especially in eastern Europe. The "racially inferior" Slavs would either be driven east of the Urals, enslaved, or exterminated. Besides acquiring Lebensraum, Hitler anticipated that the "drive to the East" would destroy Bolshevism.
From 1933-1938, Konstantin von Neurath, a conservative career diplomat, served as German foreign minister. During his tenure, Germany followed a revisionist policy aimed at overcoming the restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles and seizing the diplomatic initiative from Britain and France. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations; began rapid rearmament; signed a nonaggression pact with Poland; reacquired the Saar territory through a plebiscite; militarily assisted the supporters of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War; and remilitarized the Rhineland.
From 1938-1945, Joachim von Ribbentrop, a Nazi party member and former ambassador to Great Britain, served as the foreign minister. During these years, Germany strengthened its ties to Fascist Italy and to Japan by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact, which aimed to combat international communism, the Pact of Steel (with Italy), and the wartime Three-Power Agreement (with Italy and Japan).
In 1938, Germany acquired new territories using the threat of war. In February, Hitler pressured Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg into signing the German-Austrian agreement (Berchtesgaden Diktat), which brought Nazis into the Austrian cabinet. The next month, Germany carried out the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria. Hitler then began demanding a solution to the Sudeten crisis, a conflict over the Sudetenland (a region of Czechoslovakia settled largely by ethnic Germans). On September 30, 1938, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain (an advocate of appeasement), French premier Edouard Daladier, Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini, and Hitler signed the Munich agreement, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany. In March 1939, Germany occupied and dismembered the rump Czechoslovak state.
In August 1939, Ribbentrop signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. A temporary deviation from Germany's normally anti-Communist foreign policy, this agreement allowed Hitler the freedom to attack Poland on September 1, 1939, without fear of Soviet intervention. Britain and France, Poland's allies, declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Hitler's aggressive foreign policy resulted in the outbreak of World War II.
From 1933-1938, Konstantin von Neurath, a conservative career diplomat, served as German foreign minister. During his tenure, Germany followed a revisionist policy aimed at overcoming the restrictions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles and seizing the diplomatic initiative from Britain and France. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations; began rapid rearmament; signed a nonaggression pact with Poland; reacquired the Saar territory through a plebiscite; militarily assisted the supporters of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War; and remilitarized the Rhineland.
From 1938-1945, Joachim von Ribbentrop, a Nazi party member and former ambassador to Great Britain, served as the foreign minister. During these years, Germany strengthened its ties to Fascist Italy and to Japan by signing the Anti-Comintern Pact, which aimed to combat international communism, the Pact of Steel (with Italy), and the wartime Three-Power Agreement (with Italy and Japan).
In 1938, Germany acquired new territories using the threat of war. In February, Hitler pressured Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg into signing the German-Austrian agreement (Berchtesgaden Diktat), which brought Nazis into the Austrian cabinet. The next month, Germany carried out the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria. Hitler then began demanding a solution to the Sudeten crisis, a conflict over the Sudetenland (a region of Czechoslovakia settled largely by ethnic Germans). On September 30, 1938, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain (an advocate of appeasement), French premier Edouard Daladier, Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini, and Hitler signed the Munich agreement, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany. In March 1939, Germany occupied and dismembered the rump Czechoslovak state.
In August 1939, Ribbentrop signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. A temporary deviation from Germany's normally anti-Communist foreign policy, this agreement allowed Hitler the freedom to attack Poland on September 1, 1939, without fear of Soviet intervention. Britain and France, Poland's allies, declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Hitler's aggressive foreign policy resulted in the outbreak of World War II.
The Metternich System
The Metternich System, also known as the Congress System after the Congress of Vienna, was the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914), albeit with major alterations after the revolutions of 1848. Its founding powers were Austria, Prussia, the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, the members of the Quadruple Alliance responsible for the downfall of the First French Empire. In time France was established as a fifth member of the concert. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich and Russian tsar Alexander I.
The Age of Metternich is sometimes known as the age of the Concert, due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's conservatism and the dominance of Austria within the German Confederation, or as the European Restoration, because of the reactionary efforts of the Congress of Vienna to restore Europe to its state before the French Revolution. The rise of nationalism, the unification of Germany and the Risorgimento in Italy, and the Eastern Question were among the factors which brought an end to the Concert's effectiveness. Among the meetings of the Great Powers during this period were: Aix-la-Chappelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Verona (1822), London (1832), Berlin (1878).
The idea of a European federation had been previously raised by figures such as Gottfried Leibniz and the 1st Baron of Grenville. The Concert of Europe, as developed by Metternich, drew upon their ideas and the notion of a balance of power in international relations; that the ambitions of each Great Power was curbed by the others. From the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 to the exile of Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. During this time, the military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of liberalism throughout much of the continent, resulting in many states adopting the Napoleonic code. Largely as a reaction to the radicalism of the French Revolution, the victorious powers of the Napoleonic Wars resolved to suppress liberalism and nationalism, and revert largely to the status quo of Europe prior to 1789.The Kingdom of Prussia, Austrian Empire and Russian Empire formed the Holy Alliance with the expressed intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism.Every member of the coalition promptly joined the Alliance, save for the United Kingdom.
After an early period of success, the Concert began to weaken as the common goals of the Great Powers were gradually replaced by growing political and economic rivalries. Further eroded by the European revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna's frontiers along national lines, the Concert unraveled in the latter half of the 19th century amid successive wars between its participants - the Crimean War (1854–56), the Italian War of Independence (1859), the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). While the Congress System had a further significant achievement in the form of the Congress of Berlin (1878) which redrew the political map of the Balkans, the old balance of power had been irrevocably altered, and was replaced by a series of fluctuating alliances. By the early 20th century, the Great Powers were organized into two opposing coalitions, and World War I broke out.
The Age of Metternich is sometimes known as the age of the Concert, due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's conservatism and the dominance of Austria within the German Confederation, or as the European Restoration, because of the reactionary efforts of the Congress of Vienna to restore Europe to its state before the French Revolution. The rise of nationalism, the unification of Germany and the Risorgimento in Italy, and the Eastern Question were among the factors which brought an end to the Concert's effectiveness. Among the meetings of the Great Powers during this period were: Aix-la-Chappelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Verona (1822), London (1832), Berlin (1878).
The idea of a European federation had been previously raised by figures such as Gottfried Leibniz and the 1st Baron of Grenville. The Concert of Europe, as developed by Metternich, drew upon their ideas and the notion of a balance of power in international relations; that the ambitions of each Great Power was curbed by the others. From the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 to the exile of Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. During this time, the military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of liberalism throughout much of the continent, resulting in many states adopting the Napoleonic code. Largely as a reaction to the radicalism of the French Revolution, the victorious powers of the Napoleonic Wars resolved to suppress liberalism and nationalism, and revert largely to the status quo of Europe prior to 1789.The Kingdom of Prussia, Austrian Empire and Russian Empire formed the Holy Alliance with the expressed intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism.Every member of the coalition promptly joined the Alliance, save for the United Kingdom.
After an early period of success, the Concert began to weaken as the common goals of the Great Powers were gradually replaced by growing political and economic rivalries. Further eroded by the European revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna's frontiers along national lines, the Concert unraveled in the latter half of the 19th century amid successive wars between its participants - the Crimean War (1854–56), the Italian War of Independence (1859), the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). While the Congress System had a further significant achievement in the form of the Congress of Berlin (1878) which redrew the political map of the Balkans, the old balance of power had been irrevocably altered, and was replaced by a series of fluctuating alliances. By the early 20th century, the Great Powers were organized into two opposing coalitions, and World War I broke out.
Contribution of 18th Century Philosophers in FR
Like a lamp shining in a dark room, the philosophy of Enlightenment was supposed to open the eyes of the world's poor and free them from unjust rule. Excited writers and poets believed the spirit of Enlightenment could lift the world from an age of darkness and ignorance into a world of science, rationality and equality. The Enlightenment spread throughout the European continent and even helped inspire the American Revolution. Of all the countries, France most eagerly embraced the ideas of this new philosophy, but what started as a movement for reason, rationality and brotherhood turned into hysteria and slaughter during the French Revolution.
The Enlightenment grew popular throughout Europe during the 18th century. To its supporters, the Enlightenment was much more than a philosophy; it was a way of thinking that stemmed from faith in human reason and progress. Enlightenment thought was the culmination of many scientific advances such as Isaac Newton's laws of gravity and writings from Europe's most famous thinkers. These supporters believed that humankind was coming out of ages of darkness and superstition. They foresaw a future where all people were educated and free and liberty reigned as the supreme law of the land. Pamphlets, essays and newspapers filled the streets of Europe all forwarding a new and brighter era - The Age of Reason.
Enlightened thinkers believed that through reason humanity could advance into a new and wonderful world. These thinkers lived in many different countries and came from many different backgrounds. The most famous Enlightenment thinker was a Frenchman with the very long name of Jean Francois-Marie Arouet to which he later added Voltaire. This writer, playwright, poet and scientist was a friend to kings and queens all across Europe. Voltaire often used humor and ridicule to criticize those he did not agree with, and was the most admired and feared writer of the 18th century. Voltaire's main enemy was the church, which he believed was corrupt and stifled the freedom of thought.
Another famous thinker of this era was John Locke. Locke lived in England and believed that humans were born completely free of personality or character. "Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas," Locke proposed in one of his numerous essays on the subject. Locke believed that experience and observation created knowledge, and his ideas supported Enlightenment thought. He believed that if attitude and character could be taught than humanity could be shaped into a whole new form of society; one based on justice and reason.
Many other great thinkers, writers and scientists preached the ideas of the Enlightenment. These philosophes included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin who brought Enlightenment ideals into the American Revolution. Across the ocean, many Europeans watched as America fought against what it considered the unjust rule of Britain. When the Americans won the war, they set up a government based upon Enlightenment ideas. Instead of a monarchy (a government ruled by a un-elected leader such as a king or queen), the Americans created a government where leaders were chosen by the people. To many Europeans living under the rule of a king or queen, the American Revolution served as an example of the success of Enlightenment thought. Nowhere was this message better received than in France.
The Enlightenment grew popular throughout Europe during the 18th century. To its supporters, the Enlightenment was much more than a philosophy; it was a way of thinking that stemmed from faith in human reason and progress. Enlightenment thought was the culmination of many scientific advances such as Isaac Newton's laws of gravity and writings from Europe's most famous thinkers. These supporters believed that humankind was coming out of ages of darkness and superstition. They foresaw a future where all people were educated and free and liberty reigned as the supreme law of the land. Pamphlets, essays and newspapers filled the streets of Europe all forwarding a new and brighter era - The Age of Reason.
Enlightened thinkers believed that through reason humanity could advance into a new and wonderful world. These thinkers lived in many different countries and came from many different backgrounds. The most famous Enlightenment thinker was a Frenchman with the very long name of Jean Francois-Marie Arouet to which he later added Voltaire. This writer, playwright, poet and scientist was a friend to kings and queens all across Europe. Voltaire often used humor and ridicule to criticize those he did not agree with, and was the most admired and feared writer of the 18th century. Voltaire's main enemy was the church, which he believed was corrupt and stifled the freedom of thought.
Another famous thinker of this era was John Locke. Locke lived in England and believed that humans were born completely free of personality or character. "Let us suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas," Locke proposed in one of his numerous essays on the subject. Locke believed that experience and observation created knowledge, and his ideas supported Enlightenment thought. He believed that if attitude and character could be taught than humanity could be shaped into a whole new form of society; one based on justice and reason.
Many other great thinkers, writers and scientists preached the ideas of the Enlightenment. These philosophes included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin who brought Enlightenment ideals into the American Revolution. Across the ocean, many Europeans watched as America fought against what it considered the unjust rule of Britain. When the Americans won the war, they set up a government based upon Enlightenment ideas. Instead of a monarchy (a government ruled by a un-elected leader such as a king or queen), the Americans created a government where leaders were chosen by the people. To many Europeans living under the rule of a king or queen, the American Revolution served as an example of the success of Enlightenment thought. Nowhere was this message better received than in France.
Napoleon's Reforms
During much of the middle and late period of the French Revolution (1796-1799), the young General Bonaparte had been winning battles and gaining great popularity among the French people. This was largely due to his image as a savior of the Revolution, an image which remains today. In 1799, he participated in a coup d'état which established a three person consulate with him as first consul. Under the newly established system of government, most of the power rested with Napoleon. On December 2, 1804, First Consul Bonaparte became Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, and his control over the government became virtually complete.
Reforms in Law
While Napoleon is often seen in terms of his military image, he was also one of history's great administrators. Napoleon set out to make France the greatest nation of Europe. To do this, he proposed many changes and projects, ranging from a complete re-do of the nation's legal system, including the establishment of the civil Code Napoléon, to a massive road construction project.
In 1804, Napoleon took on the legal system of France. The system of laws was in a state of chaos. Laws were not codified and were based on Roman law, ancient custom or monarchial paternalism. During the revolution, many laws were changed. It was difficult to determine what law applied in any given situation, and laws were not equally applied to everyone.
The mishmash of laws were codified and written clearly so that the people could determine what law applied. It incorporated much of the Roman law. For the first time in history, the law was based on reason and founded on the notion that all men were equal before the law. It guaranteed individual rights (except for women and blacks) and the security of property. In short it codified many of the ideals of the revolution. The Napoleonic Code became profoundly influential to other European countries in the 19th century.
Reforms in Government
Napoleon centralized the government, putting control firmly in the hands of the national government. It became more efficient. Advancement in the civil service and the military was based on merit rather than rank. The tax system was applied equally to all.
Reforms in Education
Napoleon built many new lycees, schools for boys age 10 to 16. He recognized the importance of education in producing citizens capable of filling positions in his bureaucracy and military. Although he did not create a system of mass education, education was more available to the middle class than it ever had been before. He saw education as a way of indoctrinating "right-thinking" citizens from an early age. He didn't see the need to educate girls, since they could learn everything they needed from their mothers. They were not to be active citizens.
Causes of WWI
Alliances
A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but to declare war if one of their allies. declared war first.
1879 - The Dual Alliance
Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance to protect themselves from Russia
1881 - Austro-Serbian Alliance
Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Serbia to stop Russia gaining control of Serbia
1882 - The Triple Alliance
Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from taking sides with Russia
1914 - Triple Entente (no separate peace)
Britain, Russia and France agreed not to sign for peace separately.
1894 - Franco-Russian Alliance
Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself against Germany and Austria-Hungary
1907 - Triple Entente
This was made between Russia, France and Britain to counter the increasing threat from Germany.
1907 - Anglo-Russian Entente
This was an agreement between Britain and Russia
1904 - Entente Cordiale
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain.
Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism countries needed new markets. The amount of lands 'owned' by Britain and France increased the rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa.
Nationalism
Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon's exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia (the winning allies) decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.
Crises
Moroccan Crisis
In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.
Bosnian Crisis
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war, Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilised its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilised its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.
Sunday 3 July 2011
1857 Revolt Causes
Frictions
Some Indians came to believe that the British intended to convert them either by force or by deception (for example by causing them to lose caste) to Christianity. The British religious fashion of the time was Evangelism, and many East India Company officers took it upon themselves to try to convert their Sepoys. The Doctrine of Lapse, part of the British policy of expansionism, was also greatly resented. If a feudal ruler did not leave a male heir through natural process, i.e. his own child, not an adopted one, the land became the property of the British East India Company. Nobility, feudal landholders, and royal armies found themselves unemployed and humiliated. Indians were unhappy with the draconian rule of the British which had embarked on a project of rather rapid expansion and westernisation, that were imposed without any regard for historical subtleties in Indian society.
Anger due to social reform by the British
Some Indians were unhappy with the rule of the British and perceived a project of westernisation to be taking place, that, however well-meaning they may have been, they believed were imposed without any regard for Indian tradition or culture. The outlawing of Sati (self-immolation by widows) and child marriage, which to some appeared to be a precursor to an imposition of Christianity, has also been put forward as a reason for the revolt.
Economics
The British East India Company was a massive export company that was the force behind much of the colonization of India. The power of the Company took nearly 150 years to build. By 1857, the last vestiges of independent Indian states had disappeared and the Company exported untold quantities of gold, jewels, silver, silk, cotton, and a host of other precious materials back to England every year. The land was reorganised under the comparatively harsh Zamindari system to facilitate the collection of taxes. In certain areas farmers were forced to switch from subsistence farming to commercial crops such as indigo, jute, coffee and tea. This resulted in hardship to the farmers and increases in food prices. Local industry, specifically the famous weavers of Bengal and elsewhere, also suffered under British rule. Import tariffs were kept low, according to traditional British free-market sentiments, and thus the Indian market was flooded with cheap clothing from Britain. Master weavers even had their fingers cut off to prevent them from weaving.
The Enfield Rifle
The rebellion was, literally, started over a gun. Sepoys throughout India were issued with a new rifle, the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifled musket. To load both the old musket and the new rifle, soldiers had to bite the cartridge open and pour the gunpowder it contained into the rifle's muzzle, then stuff the cartridge case, which was typically paper coated with some kind of grease to make it waterproof, into the musket as wadding, before loading it with a ball. It was believed that the cartridges that were standard issue with this rifle were greased with lard (pork fat) which was regarded as unclean by Muslims, or tallow (beef fat), regarded as sacred to Hindus.
Prophecies, omens, signs and rumours
Another rumour that spread was an old prophecy that the Company's rule would end after a hundred years. Their rule in India had begun with the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Chapaties and Lotus Flowers began to circulate around large parts of India, quoting the famous line "Sub lal hogea hai." (Everything has become Red.), passed around by people from town to town and village to village, as a symbol of the prophecy and a sign of the coming revolt. It was also a common belief in the decade after the rebellion, commented on in the British and colonial press, that either the Persians, Chinese, Jews or Russians had directly or indirectly influenced the sepoys to revolt.
Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri was the founder of Sur dynasty in India. Born in 1486,he was the son of a jagirdar of Sasaram, Bihar. His original name was Farid. He left his home at the age of 15 and went to Jaunpur. There he studied Arabic and Persian languages. He had very good administrative skills as a result he was appointed by his father to manage his jagir, but due to some reasons he left it and joined the service of Mughal Emperor Babar. In 1522 he joined the service of Bahar Khan, governor of Bihar at that time. He was given the title of Sher Khan by Bahar Khan, for the courage and gallantry shown by him in killing a tiger single-handedly. Later Bahar Khan appointed him as a deputy governor and tutor of his son Jalal Khan. He again joined the service of Babur but came back. As Jalal Khan was a minor so Sher Khan was the virtual ruler of Bihar. In 1531, he asserted his freedom from the Mughal ruler Humayun. He fought many battles with him, initially capturing Gaur in Bengal and finally getting the throne of Delhi after the battle of Kannauj in 1540. He continued to expand his empire and in a very short span of time his kingdom extended from Indus in the east to Bengal in the west. He was a brave soldier and a military genius, he made bunkers using sand bags in the battle of Mevat.
He was a very able administrator and is remembered for his rule and the reforms he introduced. His administration was very efficient but a bit strict. He divided his empire into provinces known as Sarkars, these were further sub-divided into Parganas and these were again divided into smaller units. He is believed to be the first one to introduce "Rupaiya" and "paisa' in place of "Tanka". He is also credited with the introduction of custom duty, which is followed even today.
He built many inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous among them being the Grand Trunk Road. He also had a refined taste in architecture, it is evident in the Rohtas Fort built by him.
He continued his administrative as well as military activities simultaneously. He besieged the strong fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand where he died at in an accidental explosion of gunpowder in 1545. Though he ruled India for a short period of five years but changes made by him had the everlasting impact on the lives of people. He is considered to be the most successful ruler of medieval India. In the opinion of S.A. Rashid, as an able general, consummate soldier, as a determined ruler Sher Shah stand head over shoulders above the other rulers. So great was his personality that his greatest enemy, Humayun, on his death referred to him as "Ustad-I-Badshahan", teacher of kings. Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by his son Jalal Khan who later adopted the name of Islam Shah. He built a magnificent tomb of his father, Sher Shah Suri at Sasaram, Bihar.
Saturday 2 July 2011
Mansabdari System
In the medieval period, rulers were required to have a group of faithful followers who could support them to govern and administer the state appropriately and to crush any rebellion against the rulers. The contemporary ruling dynasties of the Mughals, the Safavids of Iran, and the Ottomans of Turkey trained their slaves to protect and defend their masters faithfully.
However, Mughal emperor Akbar, instead of the slaves, introduced the Mansabdari or rank holding system in the 11th year of his succession (1564). He appointed people of different religions and creeds without any prejudice. Those who were recruited as mansabdars formed a group of faithful officers to serve their sovereign with dedication and devotion, as the criterion set was merit and loyalty. The Mughal princes, who, so far, had their own separate identity, were also integrated in this system. This changed their status and they became servants to the king. In this capacity, there remained no difference between them and other officers.
Akbar organized the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari system. Every officer was assigned a rank valued in terms of a certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks normally given to top officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000 later raised to 7000.The ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.Zat means personal where by the status and salary of the individual was fixed. Out of this salary in addition to meeting his own personal expenses, he had to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels, mules and carts.
The other rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawar) a mansabdar was required to maintain. For every sawar, a mansabdar was paid at a rate of Rs 240 per annum over and above his salary. A person was required to maintain as many sawars as his zat rank was placed in the first category of that rank; if he maintained less than half then in the third category. Thus there were three categories in every rank.No one could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.The mansab was not hereditary.
The sawar rank was distinguished by two special features: For every 10 cavalrymen the mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses and a provision was made that the contingents of the nobles should be mixed ones that is drawn from all the groups- Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani and Rajput.This was intended to weaken the spirit of tribal and ethnic exclusiveness. The mansabdars were assigned a jagir in lieu of cash payment. Although modifications in the system were made from time to time this remained the basic structure as long as the Empire held together. The number of mansabdars rose from 2069 at the time of Jahangir’s accession in 1605 to 8000 in 1637 during Shah Jahan’s reign and to 11,546 during the latter half of the Aurangzeb’s reign.
Ram Mohan
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is known as the 'Maker of Modern India'. He was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious reform movements. He played a major role in abolishing the role of Sati. He was born on May 22, 1772 in village Radhanagar in the District of Hooghly in Bengal. His father Ramkanto Roy, was a Vaishnavite, while his mother, Tarini, was from a Shakta background. Raja Ram Mohun Roy was sent to Patna for higher studies. By the age of fifteen, Raja Rammohun Roy had learnt Bangla, Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was against idol worship and orthodox Hindu rituals. He stood firmly against all sort of social bigotry, conservatism and superstitions. But his father was an orthodox Hindu Brahmin. This led to differences between Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his father. Following differences he left the house . He wandered around Himalayas and went to Tibet. He traveled widely before returning home.
After his return Raja Ram Mohan Roy's family married him in the hope that he would change. But this did not have any effect on him. Raja Ram Mohan Roy went to Varanasi and studied the Vedas, the Upanishads and Hindu philosophy deeply. When his father died in 1803 he returned to Murshidabad. He then worked as a moneylender in Calcutta, and from 1809 to 1814, he served in the Revenue Department of the East India Company.
In 1814, Raja Ram Mohan Roy formed Atmiya Sabha. Atmiya Sabha tried to initiate social and religious reforms in the society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned for rights for women, including the right for widows to remarry, and the right for women to hold property. He actively opposed Sati system and the practice of polygamy.
He also supported education, particularly education of women. He believed that English-language education was superior to the traditional Indian education system, and he opposed the use of government funds to support schools teaching Sanskrit. In 1822, he founded a school based on English education. In 1828, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the 'Brahma Samaj'. Through 'Brahma Samaj, he wanted to expose the religious hypocrisies and check the growing influence of Christianity on the Hindu society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts bore fruit when in 1929, the Sati system was abolished.
In November 1830 Ram Mohan Roy traveled to the United Kingdom as an ambassador of the Mughal emperor to plead for his pension and allowances. Raja Ram Mohan Roy passed away on September 27, 1833 at Stapleton near Bristol due to meningitis.
Muslim League
On first October 1906 a 35-member delegation of the Muslim nobles, aristocracies, legal professionals and other elite section of the community mostly associated with Aligarh movement gathered at Simla under the leadership of Aga Khan to present an address to Lord Minto. They demanded proportionate representation of Muslims in government jobs, appointment of Muslim judges in High Courts and members in Viceroy's council etc. Though, Simla deputation failed to obtain any positive commitment from the Viceroy, it worked as a catalyst for foundation of AIML to safeguard the interests of the Muslims.
Under the active leadership of Aligarhians, the movements for Muslim separatism created political awakening among the Muslims on communal line. This ideology of political exclusivism in the name of religion gave birth to AIML in the session of All India Mohammedan Educational Conference held in Dacca (December 27-30, 1906). Nawab Salimullah, Chairman of the reception committee and convener of the political meeting proposed the creation of AIML. A 56-member provisional committee was constituted with prominent Muslim leaders from different parts of the country. Even some Muslim leaders within Congress like Ali Imam, Hasan Imam, Mazharul Haque (All Barristers from Bihar) and Hami Ali Khan (Barrister from Lucknow) were included in the committee. Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Viqar-ul-Mulk were jointly made the secrearies. After the death of Mohsin-ul-Mulk in 1907, Viqar-ul-Mulk was in full control of the League. First session of the League was held at Karanchi on December 29 & 30, 1907 with Adamjee Peerbhoy as its President.
The formation of AIML was a major landmark in the history of modern India. The first formal entry of a centrally organized political party exclusively for Muslims had the following objectives:
1. To promote among the Muslims of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government, and remove any misconception that may arise as to the instruction of Government with regard to any of its measures.
2. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims of India, and to respectfully represent their needs and aspirations to the Government.
3. To prevent the rise among the Muslims of India of any feeling of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to the afore-mentioned objects of the League.
Initially AIML remained a pocket organization of urbanized Muslims. However, the support of the British Government to the political Islamists in their non-secular intention as well as contemptuous attitude towards majority rule helped the League to become the sole representative body of Indian Muslims. To confront the challenge of modern political system, the AIML successfully achieved the status of separate electorates for the Muslims within three years of its formation. It was the first big achievement of the party, which granted separate constitutional identity to the Muslims. Lucknow Pact in 1916 put official seal on the separate identity of Muslims, which was another landmark in the separatist movement launched by the AIML.
Vidyasagar
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (26 September 1820 – 29 July 1891), was an Indian Bengali polymath and a key figure of the Bengal Renaissance. Vidyasagar was a philosopher, academic, educator, writer, translator, printer, publisher, entrepreneur, reformer, and philanthropist. His efforts to simplify and modernize Bangla prose were significant. He also rationalized and simplified the Bengali alphabet and type, which had remained unchanged since Charles Wilkins and Panchanan Karmakar had cut the first wooden Bangla type fonts in 1780.
He received the title "Vidyasagar" ("Ocean of learning" or "Ocean of knowledge") from the Calcutta Sanskrit College (where he graduated), due to his excellent performance in Sanskrit studies and philosophy. In Sanskrit, Vidya means knowledge or learning and Sagar means ocean or sea. This title was mainly given for his vast knowledge in all subjects which was compared to the vastness of the ocean.
Ishwar Chandra Bandopadhay was an eminent scholar and social reformer of 19th century Bengal. He came from a family of modest means. He went to the village school where everything was taught in Bengali. When he was still a lad, his father took him to Calcutta. Here he was to join a local pathshala to learn more Sanskrit. A family friend advised the father to send the boy to a school where he could learn English, because a knowledge of English used to get one a well-paying job. It enabled Ishwar Chandra to get a law degree. In the meanwhile, he mastered Sanskrit and a host of other subjects. Vidyasagar became a lecturer at Fort William College (established in 1800) when he was in his early twenties.
He taught brilliantly, and proposed to improve the curriculum there. Such boldness did not sit well with a senior (fellow Hindu) professor. Unpleasantness ensued, Vidyasagar resigned as lecturer, and took on a clerical job. Later on, he joined the famous Sanskrit College, and soon became its principal. He argued against superstitions and casteism, and ate freely with the so-called untouchables. He opened the doors of this exclusive college to non-dwijas. This had never been done before in a Sanskrit school. Vidyasagar dedicated himself to innovations in education. He pleaded for English as medium of instruction. And yet, Vidyasagar did not ignore his own beautiful Bangla. He introduced students to the curviform alphabet of his language with a simple book (Borno Porichoi) which is as popular today as when it was first published 150 years ago (in 1855). His simple and elegant writings are said to have served as a model for later Bengali prose
Shivaji
The Marathas' rise to power was a dramatic turning point that accelerated the demise of Muslim dominance in India. Maratha chieftains were originally in the service of Bijapur sultans in the western Deccan, which was under siege by the Mughals. Shivaji Bhonsle (1630-80 A.D) is recognized as the "father of the Maratha nation." Shivaji Bhosle, founder of the Maratha Empire, was born in 1630 AD, in the fort of Shivneri, 40 miles north of Pune. By 1647, Shivaji had captured two forts and had the complete charge of Pune. He slowly started capturing forts in the region, Purandar, Rajgad, Torna. In 1659 Shivaji succeeded in killing of famous Adilshahi general Afzal Khan and demoralizing his army. He took advantage of this conflict and laid the foundation of Maratha Kingdom near Pune, which later became the Maratha capital. Shivaji used guerilla tactics and brilliant military strategies to lead a series of successful assaults in the 1660s against Mughal strongholds, including the major port of Surat. He lost to Aurangzeb's General Jai Singh and was arrested in 1666. He made a daring escape and regained his lost territory and glory. By 1673, he had control over most of western Maharashtra and had made 'Raigad' capital. In 1674 he assumed the title of "Chhatrapati" at his elaborate coronation. At the time of his death in 1680, nearly whole of the Deccan belonged to his kingdom. He had developed an efficient administration and a powerful army.
Family Background of Shivaji and Early Life: Shivaji belonged to the Bhosale family and his father, Shahaji Raje, was a soldier in the battle between the Mughal and the kings of Nizamshah. After leaving his services Shahaji joined Adil Shah of Bijapur which was to play a very important role in the future, of carving out the Shivaji Empire.
Shivaji, the son of Jijabai and Shahaji, born in the year 1630, was brought up in the guidance of his mother who instilled in him many qualities, required to be a leader, a good human being and an able ruler. His early military expeditions were against the Sultanates of Bijapur, the most important battle being that of the Pratapgarh in the year 1659 which established the power of Shivaji in the eyes of the Marathas.
Battles fought with the Mughals: the battles which Shivaji fought with the Mughal, especially with Shaista Khan, have been engraved in the chapters of history as examples of bravery and intelligence. The Battle of Umberkhind in 1661, the attack on the Mughal camp in Pune and the Battle of Surat were enough to rouse the anger of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Shivaji lost his Purandhar fort which was later reclaimed during the years 1670 to 1674.
Coronation of Shivaji: Shivaji was crowned the king of the Marathas or the Chhatrapati in the year 1674. By that time Shivaji’s Empire had grown and so had the strength of his army. Shivaji Empire has spread itself to the south also with the capture of the forts of Vellore and Jinji which are located in present day Tamil Nadu.
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